Adaptations and mitigation: Questions and answers part 5

Q: Is there a climate change programme in your country? Please summarize steps in developing, and contents.

Ans: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

This action plan outlines a number of steps to simultaneously advance India's development and climate change-related objectives. The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) encompasses a range of measures. It focuses on eight missions, which are as follows:

1. National Solar Mission: The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of solar energy for power generation and other uses, with the ultimate objective of making solar competitive with fossil-based energy options. It also includes the establishment of a solar research center, increased international collaboration on technology development, strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity, and increased government funding and international support.

2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: The NAPCC recommends mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-saving certificates, financing for public–private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings, and agricultural sectors, and energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances.

3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: The NAPCC also aims at promoting energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning by extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code, strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards, and using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles and incentives for the use of public transportation. The NAPCC also emphasizes on waste management and recycling.

4. National Water Mission: The NAPCC sets a goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other measures to deal with water scarcity as a result of climate change.

5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: This particular mission sets the goal to prevent melting of the Himalayan glaciers and to protect biodiversity in the Himalayan region.

6. Green India Mission: The NAPCC also aims at afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and expanding forest cover from 23 to 33% of India's territory.

7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: The NAPCC aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices.

8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts, and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modeling, and increased international collaboration. It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture capital funds.

The NAPCC also describes other ongoing initiatives that are as follows:

1. Power generation: The government is mandating the retirement of inefficient coal-fired power plants and supporting the research and development of Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IGCC and supercritical technologies.

2. Renewable energy: Under the Electricity Act 2003 and the National Tariff Policy 2006, the central and the state electricity regulatory commissions must purchase a certain percentage of grid-based power from renewable sources.

3. Energy efficiency: Under the Energy Conservation Act 2001, large energy-consuming industries are required to undertake energy audits and an energy-labeling program for appliances has been introduced.

4. Proposals for health sector: The proposed program comprises two main components, namely provision of enhanced public health care services and assessment of increased burden of diseases due to climate change.

5. Implementation: Ministries with lead responsibility for each of the missions are directed to develop objectives, implementation strategies, timelines, and monitoring and evaluation criteria to be submitted to the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change. The Council will also be responsible for periodically reviewing and reporting on each mission's progress. To be able to quantify progress, appropriate indicators and methodologies will be developed to assess both avoided emissions and adaptation benefits.

Q: How to prepare climate and climate information in a simple way to provide to the end-user.

Ans : The severity of climate change impacts to develop strategies that modify or prevent these impacts. Hence, robust climate change impact assessment studies are needed, to assess the vulnerability of given systems and to develop reliable adaptation strategies. For each of these climate change impact assessment studies, climate data are either directly interpreted or used in impact models by end-users. End-users are often unsure about the data access, quality of data, and correct usage of data. end-users need information on local or regional scale.

Hence, downscaling techniques have to be accomplished that not only bridge the spatial resolution gap between GCM and local information in a sound way, but are also suitable for the purpose intended by the end-user (e.g. heavy rain or summer temperature analyses). End users require precisely tailored downscaling products with detailed guidelines on their interpretation and limitations.

Consequently, there is a need to improve the communication between the downscaling community and stakeholders, with a more targeted exchange of information about what is needed from the end user, and what can and cannot be provided by downscaling methods.

Adaptations and mitigation: Questions and answers part 4

 Q: The importance of conveying scientific information on climate and CC into appropriate actions for the local community and sectors.

Ans:  Lack of awareness exists at all levels from decision maker, officials in sectors and locality, to vulnerable communities.

Therefore we emphasize on the awareness raising for all levels. Health news is a perennial favorite of news outlets, including newspapers, television, radio, and online. The climate change and health story, especially to the degree that it can be localized, has considerable potential to interest local news outlets.

Briefing the editorial board of your local paper, local TV and radio producers, local weather casters, and prominent local bloggers are all potentially helpful options.Framing climate change as a public health issue creates opportunities to engage important new partners in the issue who, in turn, can help explain the issue to the public and decision-makers, and who can help develop and implement response plans. Protecting human health is an issue that crosses institutional, scientific, and political boundaries.

A focus on improving health is an important way to humanize the issue of climate change, and to encourage cross-cutting collaborations across communities. Reframing climate change as a public health issue can help reveal local angles of a global problem, thereby making the problem more concrete, and moving the location of impacts closer to home.

To many people, the problem of climate change is global and abstract, while human health impacts are local and concrete. So, at local level the response to climate change should be closely linked with international policy and national strategy and policy should be issued. By framing climate change as a local public health issue is possible to replace people’s mental associations of climate change as being geographically and socially distant with more proximate and relevant mention associations, such as the risks to children, the elderly, and the poor, in local communities.

 Q: What are the methods to control flood risks?

Ans : In many countries, rivers prone to floods are often carefully managed. Defences such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks. When these defences fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used. Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defences, such as sea walls, beach nourishment, and barrier islands.

A dike is another method of flood protection. A dike lowers the risk of having floods compared to other methods.[citation needed] It can help prevent damage; however it is better to combine dikes with other flood control methods to reduce the risk of a collapsed dike.

A weir, also known as a low head dam, is most often used to create millponds, but on the Humber River in Toronto, a weir was built near Raymore Drive to prevent a recurrence of the flooding caused by Hurricane Hazel in 1954, which destroyed nearly two fifths of the street.

Q: How the flood and Tsunami hazard maps are useful to prevent the flood and Tsunami risks?

Ans : The flood and Tsunami hazard maps are useful to identifying the location of higher risk level area and formulating a plan for when an emergency situation arises. These maps are empirically defined using a deterministic approach based upon historical data.

Q: What is the most efficient option of adaptation for increasing flood magnitude in future you think?

Ans: Many of the recommended adaptation options are considered to be “no- regret” as they are consistent with best practice and would be applicable under any future climate scenario. These include improved monitoring, long term, risk based-integrated planning, enhancement of natural systems, decentralization and diversification of options and general social development and flexible, responsive institutions and systems. 

Three main options of adaptation for increasing flood magnitude:

• Engineering options include

- Technology

- Information and Intelligence （database, early warning system etc）

• Policy options include

- Law （promoting other options）

- Human resources (capacity development, advertisement)

• Socio-economic options include

- Social system （revision of social systems and practices）

- Economic system （insurance, grants, incentive） 

Q: What is the disaster related to water people are mostly concerned in your country? Please pick up a disaster event and report us about it.

Ans:

Drought Disaster in Maharastra, India:

Maharashtra state was affected by the region’s worst drought in 40 years,worst-hit areas are Jalna, Jalgaon and Dhule are also affected by the famine. Millions of people in Maharashtra are at serious risk of hunger after two years of low rainfall in the region.

Flood Disaster in Uttrakhand, India:

On June 2013 Uttarakhand received heavy rainfall,massive Landslides due to the large flashfloods, it suffered maximum damage of houses and structures, killing more than 1000 people, sources claimed the death toll could be rise up to 5000. Uttarakhand Flash Floods is the most disastrous floods in the history of India.

Q: Why are the climate change adaptation is important for sustainable development in your country and sustainability in the world?

Ans: The climate change adaptation is important for sustainable development in India and sustainability in the world:

1) Climate change cannot be totally avoided.

2) Anticipatory and precautionary adaptation is more effective and less costly than forced, last-minute,

emergency adaptation or retrofitting.

3) Climate change may be more rapid and more pronounced than current estimates suggest. Unexpected events are possible.

4) Immediate benefits can be gained from better adaptation to climate variability and extreme atmospheric events.

5) Immediate benefits also can be gained by removing maladaptive policies and practices.

6) Climate change brings opportunities as well as threats. Future benefits can result from climate change

Adaptations and mitigation: Questions and answers part 3

 Q:  How to increase climate change adaptation capacity on sustainable development and sustainability in your country?

Ans: Adaptive capacity - combination of the strengths, attributes, and resources available to an individual, community, society, or organization that can be used to prepare for and undertake actions to reduce adverse impacts, moderate harm, or exploit beneficial opportunities. 

To increase climate change adaptation capacity on sustainable development and sustainability follow as: 

1.Integration of Climate change adaptation into sustainability science and sustainable development policies, strategies, action plan.
2.Management (Adaptive management, learning by doing management, promoting innovation).
3.Development of sustainability science, Science and technology policy innovation;
4.Proactive response to CC for sustainability.
5.Building Nature Harmonious and Resilient Society (NHRS).
6.Capacity building for CCA and sustainability.

7.University led development for CCA and sustainability.

Q: Give a brief sketch (write up) about global radiation budget?

Ans: The Earth's Radiation Budget is a concept used for understanding:

How much energy the Earth gets from the Sun and How much energy the Earth-system radiates back to outer space as invisible light.

Based on the physics principle of conservation of energy, this radiation budget represents the accounting of the balance between incoming radiation, which is almost entirely solar radiation, and outgoing radiation, which is partly reflected solar radiation and partly radiation emitted from the Earth system, including the atmosphere.

Component of Earth's radiation Budget:

1) INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION: Incoming ultraviolet, visible, and a limited portion of infrared energy from the Sun drive the Earth's climate system. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm. The heat generated by this absorption is emitted as longwave infrared radiation, some of which radiates out into space.

2) ABSORBED ENERGY: The solar radiation that passes through Earth's atmosphere is either reflected off snow, ice, or other surfaces or is absorbed by the Earth's surface.

3) Emitted LONGWAVE Radiation: Heat resulting from the absorption of incoming shortwave radiation is emitted as longwave radiation. Radiation from the warmed upper atmosphere, along with a small amount from the Earth's surface, radiates out to space. 

4) GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (such as water vapor and carbon dioxide) absorb most of the Earth's emitted longwave infrared radiation, which heats the lower atmosphere. In turn, the warmed atmosphere emits longwave radiation, some of which radiates toward the Earth's surface, keeping our planet warm and generally comfortable. Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane increase the temperature of the lower atmosphere by restricting the outward passage of emitted radiation, resulting in "global warming," or, more broadly, global climate change.

Adaptations and mitigation: Questions and answers part 2

 Q: What is the impact of CO2 increase on the water cycle predicted by various models?

Ans: The impact of CO2 increase on the water cycle predicted by various models conclude that models of climate change may be underestimating how much water is likely to run off the land and back into the sea as atmospheric chemistry changes. Runoff may be as much as 17 percent higher in forests of the eastern United States, when models account for changes in soil nitrogen levels and atmospheric ozone exposure.

Elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration directly affects plant growth, which inherently is tied with the hydrological cycle through lowered rates of stomatal conductance and increases in leaf area. Decreased stomatal conductance could reduce evapotranspiration (ET) whereas increased leaf area could contribute to increases in ET potentially offsetting the reduction in stomatal conductance to some degree. Many studies have indicated that combined effects from elevated CO2 concentrations may lessen ET, resulting in increased runoff. However, global warming can increase the ability of air to absorb water as temperatures rise, suggesting increases in potential evapotranspiration (PET).

Impact of CO2 on water cycle

Q: What are the principal interactions between CC and SD?

Ans: The principal interactions between CC and SD are:

First, future economic development and the well-being of large numbers of human beings would be threatened by global warming.

Second, social welfare and equity would also be undermined in an unprecedented manner, by climate change. In particular, both intra- and inter-generational equity are likely to be worsened, especially since poorer nations and disadvantaged groups within nations are more vulnerable and the costs of damage, as well as of necessary adaptation and mitigation efforts will be unevenly distributed. Sustainomics suggests that inequitable distributions are not only ethically unappealing, but are also likely to be unsustainable in the long run, because they undermine social cohesion and exacerbate

conflicts over scarce resources.

Third, the environmental sustainability viewpoint draws attention to the fact that increasing anthropogenic emissions and accumulations of GHGs might significantly perturb a critical global subsystem – the atmosphere. Changes in the global climate are likely to threaten the stability of a range of critical physical, ecological and socioeconomic systems and subsystems at all levels – regional, national and sub national.

Q: Describe the the three types of capital that are essential for SD.

Ans: The three types of capital that are essential for SD:

1) Natural resources are all of those things that we take out of nature and use: water, plants, animals, and materials from the earth such as fossil fuels, metals and minerals. All of these are things that we use up, either as raw material or as part of a production process.

2) Human capital is each individual's personal skills and abilities, physical and mental health, and education. Social capital is the connections in a community -- the ways in which people interact and relate to each other. The simplest connections are connections to family, friends and neighbors. On a larger scale, we form connections through community and volunteer organizations, the ability of groups of people to form governments to deal with common problems, and the ability of people to form companies to create goods and services to satisfy the needs of the community.

3) Built capital includes roads, heavy equipment, factory buildings, houses, and apartment buildings. It includes basic necessities like food and clothing. It also includes things that, although not strictly necessary, many people in developed countries would be loath to do without, like dishwashers, cars, telephones and computers.

Climate Change: questions and answers part 5

Q: What are the key assumptions on which the IPCC SRES scenarios are based? What are the main differences between the A1FI and B2 scenarios? What is the principal difference between the IPCC SRES (pre-2012) and RCP (AR5) scenarios?

Ans:

A1FI: Deals with  rapid economic growth in global context and rapid introductions of new and more efficient technologies,with emphasis on fossil fuel intensive,while

B2:  Deals with an emphasis on local solutions to economic and environmental sustainability having more environmental and original approaches.

The principal difference between the IPCC SRES (pre-2012) and RCP (AR5) scenarios:

1. The IPCC SRES (pre-2012), scenarios had socioeconomic storylines but climate mitigation options were not included as in case of RCP (AR5) scenario. 

2. RCP (AR5) scenario intended to provide a flexible, interactive, and iterative approach to climate change scenarios which were not included in IPCC SRES (pre-2012).

3. In  RCP (AR5) scenario, socioeconomic scenarios, emissions, and subsequent radiative forcing pathways were  linked to one,which were absent in IPCC SRES (pre-2012) .

4. All RCPs adopted stringent air pollution mitigation policies and thus have much lower tropospheric ozone and aerosol  abundances than the SRES scenarios, which ignored  the role of air quality regulations.

Q: Why is it important to be able to downscale climate models to spatial scales below about 50 km?

Ans: It important  to downscale climate models to spatial scales below about 50 km,because Global Climate Models (GCMs) used for climate studies and climate projections, run at coarse spatial resolution (in 2012, typically of the order 50 kilometres (31 mi),and were unable to resolve important sub-grid scale features such as clouds and topography. As a result GCM output can not be used for local impact studies.
To overcome this problem downscaling methods were used to obtain local-scale weather and climate, particularly at the surface level, from regional-scale atmospheric variables that are provided by GCMs.

Q: If you know the physical laws for how a system changes over time, in what ways could this system be unpredictable? What is this relevance of this to climate change modelling?

Ans: If I knew that the physical laws for  a system changes over time, then the system could be unpredictable in a number of ways:

1. It's a complex system that intervenes with the physical law having time delays.

2. Over passage of time,there could be non linear interactions within the system.

3. There might be loopholes in the feedback system.

4. Just because the system might be deterministic,it doesn't guarantee its predictability to the future.

The relevance of the above to climate change modelling are:

1. weather can be predicted.

2. Catastrophic shifts in the ecosystems can be predicted over time.

3. Ocean ecosystem can be predicted.

Q: Why can it be helpful to model a system at the level of individual agents instead of only considering population averages in the model? Why wouldn't both approaches give the same answer?

Ans: It can be helpful to model a system at the level of individual agents instead of only considering population averages in the model because,it's a complex system and we often need to use techniques like agent based modelling to understand how system behaves,the ways in which agents are being connected to each other and how this connection would ultimately effect the system behavior.

Both approaches would not give the same answer because Individual agents probability of occurrence in a population set would be different from those of when we consider the population averages.i.e the in case of individual agents the probability of occurrence would be considered that are most likely to occur while in population average,the average probabilities would be considered to determine the result.

References:

• https://sites.google.com/view/rk-srivastava/publications

Climate Change: questions and answers part 4

 Q: Outline the processes that led to the establishment of IPCC and UNFCC and describe how their roles differ?

Ans: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and formally known as the Earth Summit which was held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. The main objective of the UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations.It was established in year 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. It does not conduct any research nor does it monitor climate related data or parameters. The IPCC published its first assessment report in 1990, a supplementary report in 1992, a second assessment report (SAR) in 1995, a third assessment report (TAR) in 2001, a fourth assessment report (AR4) in 2007 and a fifth assessment report (AR5) in 2014.

Q: How does the differentiated availability of energy across the Earth's surface lead to different climates and weather systems around the world?

Ans: The distribution of solar radiation on the Earth's surface regulates the length and order of the seasons. Solar radiation strikes the earth more directly at the equator and tropics than in polar regions. More heat is therefore transferred to Earth in the tropics than at the poles.Global atmospheric circulation patterns represent the planet’s attempt to move warm air toward the poles and cold air toward the equatorial region.

These patterns are complicated by Earth's rotation,dividing into three large convection cells in the  Northern and Southern Hemispheres that control climate patterns. Short-term climate fluctuations occur on cycles lasting thousands of years and are related to variations in Earth’s orbit around the Sun that cause the amount of incoming solar radiation to vary with time. These variations result from changes in the shape of Earth's orbit and changes in the magnitude and direction of tilt of Earth's axis, thus lead to different climates and weather systems around the world.

Q: In the IPCC definition of radiative forcing which is more important, natural or anthropogenic climate forcing factors? Explain.

Ans: Anthropogenic factors are more important according to IPCC definition of radiative forces as follows:

The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw the large-scale use of fossil fuels for industrial activities. Natural resources are being used extensively for construction, industries, transport, and consumption.

 Fossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles, generate electricity for industries, households, etc. Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities have all led to a rise in the emission of carbon dioxide. A large amount of nitrous oxide emission has been attributed to fertilizer application.  The human impact on climate during this era greatly exceeds that due to known changes in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic eruptions.

The  differences  in  radiative  forcing  estimates  between  the present day and the start of the industrial era for solar irradiance changes and volcanoes are both very small compared to the differences in radiative forcing estimated to have resulted from human activities. As a result, in today’s atmosphere, the radiative forcing from  human  activities  is  much  more  important  for  current  and future  climate  change  than  the  estimated  radiative  forcing  from changes in natural processes.

Q: From an Earth system feedback perspective which is more likely to increase the impact of global warming over the next 100-200 years: melting polar ice, or changes in cloud cover? Justify your answer.

Ans: Melting polar ice is more likely to increase the impact of global warming over the next 100-200 years, as the ice is disappearing quite fast; not only is albedo decreasing, but the loss triggers a positive feedback. By exposing the ocean surface to sunlight, the water warms up. This melts the ice from underneath, while man-made CO2 in the atmosphere warms the surface.

Humidity also increases; water vapour is a powerful greenhouse gas.  More ice therefore melts, which exposes more water, which melts more ice from underneath. Clouds can increase albedo (a negative feedback), but also warming (a positive feedback), but sea ice is a critical player of Earth's changing climate. Sea ice cools by reflecting incoming solar radiation back into space. Because of its light color, sea ice has what is known as high albedo, which is the percentage of solar radiation a surface reflects back to space.

Q. Attempt to explain the observed acceleration in Arctic summer sea ice loss since about the year 2000.

Ans: Less ice on the surface of arctic in summer and what is there is not thick as it use to be. It's not covering the ocean as it used to be and what ice is there is thin so it melts quickly. If we look at the Arctic summer sea ice loss for subsequent years from 2000 onwards, we can see that it's thinner if we look for a gap of a year only while thicker in case of gap of three years. These trends indicate global see level is increasing in comparison to sea ice. Sea level change in India is about one mm/year.

Q. In the context of climate and weather, give one example of a slow-onset event and one example of a rapid-onset event in your district / country / region in the last 1-5 years. Do you think that the frequency of such events is increasing or decreasing; if you think there is a change do you think it can be linked to global warming; and what do you think is the nature of that link?

Ans:  Slow onset event is melting of ice in India. The ice loss is 1mm/year in India, due to which the sea level is increasing. Rapid onset event is no. of cyclones in India 1- 5 years. Recently, the cyclone affected the major parts of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh in India. The frequency of cyclones increased in last 1-5 years in comparison to previous years.
Yes, the frequency of such events is seen to increase in the last 1-5 years.
Yes it can be linked to global warming, as earth's atmosphere get heated  up due to green house gases as a result of which there is rapid increase in temperature over the recent years. Melting ice and cyclone regarded as natural factors but  as their magnitude is increased due to global warming.

Climate Change: questions and answers part 3

 Ques: We would appreciate if you can suggest any potential questions for this purpose. Can you say whether the climate change has similar or variable impact on food production at varying latitude? If so, explain the reason for the similar or variable impact?

Ans: Yes, The climate change have a variable impact on food production at varying latitude because change in latitude changes the climate which may be either tropical and temperate and also the belt of vegetation which primarily depends upon climatic conditions. It can be seen that in the tropical climate, higher temperature will create more atmospheric water demand leading to water stress. The developing countries are located in tropical climate which have fewer resources with low adaptive capacity to the changing agricultural production because of climate change. So, it is not necessary that climate will have similar impact on variation of latitude, it will always be variable in nature.

Ques: What are the properties of crop model for its application in climate change impact analysis?
Ans: The properties of crop model for its application in climate change impact analysis:

1) Basic growth processes

2) Phenological development

3) Biomass accumulation

4) Growth and yield

5) Soil water balance

6) Soil carbon and nitrogen balance

Use soil-crop models system (DSSAT, APSIM, Expert-N, InfoCrop) for:

a) evaluation of adaptation options:

– Weather uncertainty

–Input uncertainty (Price and management)

b) evaluation of climate change mitigation:

– Water and nutrient management to reduce greenhouse gas emission

– Organic farming for carbon sequestration

Q: Often precipitation and temperature are the most commonly required parameters used for impact studies. Give some examples of impact study procedures (ex. flood) and the parameters that you would use from climate projections.

Ans: After downscaling either by statistical or dynamical method following procedure are adopted:

A) Qualitative Description

B) Indicators of change

C) Compliance to standards

D) Cost and benefit

E) Geographical analysis

F) Dealing  with uncertainty

 The parameters that would be used from climate projections are:

Precipitation, Temperature, CO2, Land use, Pollution, Water resources, agriculture.

Q: Describe the type of downscaling approach you would use for (a) a flood study and (b) a rice yield change study. Give reasons for your choice

Ans: For flood study dynamic scaling method would be used because,it is based upon assumptions and resolutions and if forced with with observations it can simulate real natural events which is not possible in case of statistical scaling approach.

While, for rice yield statistical scaling method would be used because, it is based upon generation of synthetic series of data at a local variable site between local scale predict and large scale predictors, as results are limited to local climatic conditions and enormous amount of previous year data is needed to compute the analysis.

Q:  What is the difference between climate change adaptation and climate change mitigation?

Ans: Adaptation and mitigation are complementary to each other. For example, if mitigation measures are undertaken effectively, lesser will be the impacts to which we will need to adapt. Similarly, if adaptation measures are strong, lesser might be the impacts associated with any given degree of climate change.
There are some differences between adaptation and mitigation, but if the key vulnerabilities to climate change are to be addressed, adaptation is essential as even after the most rigorous mitigation efforts, climate change will continue in the next few decades. At the same time, mitigation is necessary because reliance on adaptation alone could eventually lead to a magnitude of climate change to which effective adaptation is possible only at very high social, environmental, and economic costs.

Some observed incidents:

• https://www.dw.com/en/mysterious-mass-fish-kill-in-oder-river-climate-change-or-poison/a-62784099

• https://www.dw.com/en/netherlands-drought-in-the-land-of-dikes/av-62819066

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X20308190?via%3Dihub

Reports

• https://www.ipcc.ch/reports/

• https://unfccc.int/

• https://unu.edu/

• https://sites.google.com/view/rk-srivastava/publications

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